Rational Choice Theory Essay

â€Å"Man is a rational animal who always loses his temper when he is called upon to act in accordance with the dictates of reason. † As seen from Oscar Wilde’s famous quote, rationality is one of the most crucial and controversial subjects in studying human behavior. To study and examine this rationality, numerous scholars have tried to establish their own theories and generalize their explanation with empirical evidences from real world, which ultimately produces so called, the theory of rational choice. Rational Choice Theory is an approach to understand human behavior. The approach has long been the dominant paradigm in economics, but in recent several decades it has become more widely used in other fileds such as Sociology, Political Science, and Anthropology. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of rational choice theory and briefly discuss its basic assumptions, critiques, political implication, and alternative explanations of individual choice mechanism. First of all, historical backgrounds of rational choice theory and its transition from the field of Economics to that of Political Science will be elaborated. Next, various definitions and meanings of the rational choice will be discussed. The basic assumptions of the rational choice approach with political implication will be followed. Several issues raised by rational choice theory will be followed after this discussion. This paper will suggest some of the main criticisms that have been levied against the rational choice approach. Limited empirical validity of rational choice theory and methodological individualism, which reveals innate problematic nature of the theory, will be discussed. Finally, alternative explanations of individual choice mechanism will sum up this discussion. Before elaborating its theoretical discussion, it is necessary to discuss historical backgrounds of rational choice theory. In the article, â€Å"A Genealogy of Rational Choice: Rationalism, Elitism, and Democracy†, Maloy introduces Skinner’s analysis of behaviorism as fundamental background for the discussion of rational choice theory. He argues that, â€Å"Skinner’s analysis deserves the attention of the recent debates around rational choice ecause it calls attention to the ineluctable ideological features of methodological debate† (Maloy 751). According to Maloy, Skinner could â€Å"clarify the sorts of normative force which attach to empirical theories in social sciences by a close textual analysis of some leading contributions to the behaviorist debate†, which ultimately enables the discussion of rational choice to be furthered applied into different fields of study (Maloy 751). Milton Freidman is another crucial figure that provides profound theoretical base for discussing rational choice theory. In â€Å"The Methodology of Positive Economics†, Friedman argues that people and firms make decisions that can maximize their profit under perfect information. He defended rational choice model by arguing that, â€Å"a theory should be judged by its predictive accuracy, not the realism of its assumptions† (Friedman 10). His argument provides theoretical foundations of rational choice theory in Economics, even though it is often criticized by later scholars because of its weak empirical validity and ceteris paribus nature. While rational choice theory has been dominant paradigm in Economics, it has become â€Å"adapted and adjusted in a number of ways to fit† different fields of study such as Political Science; Maloy explains that â€Å"the distinctiveness of the rational choice approach among political scientists consists, in general terms, in the use of economic models to explain and predict political behavior (Maloy 753). Maloy points out three prominent figures, Arrow, Downs, and Olson as rational choice founders especially in the field of political science. According to Maloy, Arrow’s work focuses on so called, â€Å"collective rationality whose underlying purpose is to measure collective choices using standards normally applied to individual choices (Maloy 753). Down uses Arrow’s collective rationality as the starting point of his study and â€Å"aims to articulate a behavior rule for democratic governments so that they could be included in economic theories of general equilibrium, alongside non-state agents like private firms and consumers (Maloy 754). Finally, Olson’s analysis has taken â€Å"the key elements of Arrow’s and Down’s constructs and applied them to a narrower field†; He argues that â€Å"as long as the service provided by a voluntary association is a public good on which an individual can ride-free, there is no incentive actually to take on the costs associated with joining, membership and participation, unless the marginal contribution of that individual appreciably advances the organizational cause† (Maloy 754). All three choice founders’ works have enabled rational choice theory to be in the central place of political discussion in â€Å"the creative and cross-disciplinary ways† (Maloy 755). By arguing that voting results have no specific social meaning, voting has no individual efficacy, and participation in interest group activity has no special individual efficacy, these rational choice founders could criticize unrealistic and irrational assumptions and norms of traditional democratic system and bring rational choice model to the place of political discussion from the field of Economics (Maloy 755). Rational Choice Theory generally starts with consideration of the choice behavior of individual decision-making units, which in economics are often consumers and firms. The theory suggests that the individual decision-making unit is certain larger group such as buyers or sellers in a particular market. Once individual behavior is set up, the analysis generally moves on to examine how individual choices interact to produce outcomes. Then, what does it mean by arguing that a choice is rational? In rational choice theory it means that an agent’s choices reflect the most preferred possible alternative among given opportunities. In other words, choices must reflect utility maximization. Elinor Ostrom defines rational choice theory as a guide to â€Å"understand humans as self-interested, short-term maximizers† in his work, â€Å"A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action† (Ostrom 2). In the article, â€Å"The Political Psychology of Rational Choice Theory†, William H.  Riker also suggests that â€Å"the rational choice model begins with the assumption that actors know what they want and can order their wants transitively† (Riker 25). â€Å"Transitively† here means that an agent of rational choice model can do so called, â€Å"a transitive ordering†; â€Å"To know what one wants requires one to choose the best from among several goals and, failing to attain it, to choose the second best, etc† (Riker 24). This formulation of ordering enables an agent to pursue the best option with given constraints that limit choices he or she can have. In their work, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory†, Coleman and Fararo define rational choice sociologically as they use the term, â€Å"models of purposive action†, rather than rational choice; â€Å"These models rest on the assumption that actors are purposive which means they act in ways that tend to produce beneficial results† (Coleman and Fararo 21). These several definitions point out that choices pursuing utility maximization and outcomes made by these choices are key elements in rational choice theory. Then how is different when rational choice theory is applied into the field of Political Science instead of other fields of study such as Economics and Sociology? According to Riker, Economists’ main concern for rational choice is â€Å"the process and outcomes produced by voluntary exchange, where of course, all participants benefit. On the other hand, â€Å"Politics mainly concerns processes and outcomes produced by group decisions which are practically binding on those who cannot resign from the group. Thus, there can be losers and winners in politics according to Riker’s argument (Riker 24). Although Rational choice theory has long been the dominant paradigm in Economics and other fields of study, it has been subject to vigorous criticism. In â€Å"Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory†, Don Green and Ian Shapiro raises several empirical problems that rational choice theory possess; they â€Å"conclude that a number of methodological deficiencies plague empirical applications of rational choice models. They argue that, â€Å"fundamental and recurrent methodological failings rooted in the universalist aspirations that motivate so much rational choice theorizing† (Freidman 59). According to Green and Shapiro, â€Å"these mistakes stem from a method-driven rather than a problem-driven approach to research, in which practitioners are more eager to vindicate one or another universalist model than to understand and explain actual political outcomes† (Friedman 59). Green and Shapiro’s argument can be summarized into three propositions; â€Å"there is a list of methodological characteristics that are undesirable in an empirical science and are thus to be avoided. † â€Å"Empirical applications of rational choice theory are more likely to commit these mistakes than other types of empirical analysis in political science. â€Å"These pathologies are not due to and historical coincidence, but are rooted in fundamental characteristics of rational choice theory, especially its universalist aspirations and the lack of specificity in the rational actor assumption† (Freidman 60). These propositions suggest that rational choice theory has its empirical limit for testing and predicting actual political outcomes. In detail, Green and Shapiro point out several problems of rational choice theory that possibly undermines the empirical validity of the theory itself. Post hoc theory development† known to statisticians as â€Å"curve fitting† is one of these problems that rational choice theory contains. Green and Shapiro â€Å"contend that rather than formulating bold predictions that are falsifiable by empirical evidence, rational choice theorist tend first to look at the empirical evidence, then design a rational choice model that fits it† (Friedman 5). Another problem raised by Green and Shapiro is rational choice theorists’ engagement in â€Å"arbitrary domain restriction† (Friedman 5). As discussed earlier, certain restrictions or constraints enable â€Å"a transitive ordering† in rational choice theory. Green and Shapiro argue that these constraints and restrictions are defined in ambiguous ways in rational choice model, which ultimately makes the empirical validity of the theory weakened. Green and Shapiro’s examination of the phenomenon of voting behavior is another major example that shows these problems rational choice theory innately possesses. â€Å"In a real-world election with a large electorate, it is instrumentally irrational for anyone to case a ballot, since no single vote has more than an infinitesimal chance of deciding the outcome. Whether one favors selfish or selfless ends, virtually any activity in pursuit of those ends would be more effective than the time spent on voting and on educating oneself about candidates and issues. Yet hundreds of millions of people do vote. For rational choice theory, this would appear to be a gigantic anomaly† (Friedman 6); As noted earlier, rational choice theory presumes that an agent of the model seeks best possible outcomes to maximize his or her utility in given constraints. However, according to Green and Shapiro, in a real-world voting behavior does not confirm this assumption of rational choice theory where voters cast a ballot without having enough time to assess or predict its possible outcome and realizing whether his or her action of voting maximize benefit or not. Another issue raised by Green and Shapiro is free riding problem; While voters can easily pursue a free riding action on the efforts of others to help the cause succeed, there is no need for people to devote resources of time and money to cause desired results. In other words, â€Å"rational choice theory would seem to be refuted not only by people who vote, but by those who contribute small amounts of money to political campaigns, attend rallies, and engage in other forms of collective action designed to secure goals whose achievement is independent of the efforts of any single participant† (Friedman 7). As seen from Green and Shapiro’s founding, most criticisms of rational choice theory seem to be that the assumptions of the theory are not literally and completely true. No model can pass such a test, as all theories abstract from reality in certain way. Determining the empirical validity of a model would therefore seem to involve an examination of both feasibility of assumptions and conformity with real-world data. The most basic assumption of rational choice theory is that the primary unit of analysis is the individual decision-maker. Those who believe that groups are fundamental have criticized this assumption. This issue of so called, â€Å"methodological individualism† are dealt in many contexts in the social sciences. In the book, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique†, Coleman and Fararo argues that models of purposive action or rational choice model can be useful in explaining and predicting human behavior. They further their argument by saying that â€Å"because the values and beliefs of individuals are shaped primarily by the socializing influences of society, especially as mediated through social relationships with significant other, an understanding of the culture and structure of societies and of the positions of individuals within them is necessary† (Coleman and Fararo 22). According to Coleman and Fararo, major problem for applying rational choice model particularly into Economics and Political Science, in which the primary interest has been in aggregate level outcomes, â€Å"is that the postulate of purposive action has been linked to arbitrary and narrow assumptions about what individuals value and believe† (Coleman Fararo 33). Also the assumption that human behavior is narrowly self-interested and the use of the term rationality to refer to the efficient pursuit of economic benefits has often produced incorrect assumption that rational choice model are innately egoistic; â€Å"that they regard individuals as calculating the expected benefit to themselves of alternative lines of action and acting accordingly (Coleman and Fararo 34). Recent empirical evidences suggest that human beings are capable of acting in ways for the interests of others or the social group above their self-interest, which implies that the assumption of individual’s pursuit of self-interest does not match with reality. Coleman and Fararo further their discussion of this â€Å"methodological individualism† by arguing that a social norm can be one primary example, which refutes the basic assumption of rational choice model. According to Coleman and Fararo, â€Å"When a social norm is know to have been violated, some type of formal or informal sanction will result† (Coleman Fararo 35). Formal sanction like a legal code or a set of rules and informal sanction like a disapproval or social ostracism would affect individual’s choice making process. Therefore, unlike the basic assumption of rational choice model suggests that human behavior is oriented from self-interest, by the effect of social norms and values, individuals can consequently act in altruistic or selfless way for pursuing the interests of groups they are involved in. Because of its limit and problematic nature of rational choice theory, the need for alternative explanation has become necessary for many scholars who criticize the theory. Dennis Chong provides some insights for the possible alternative of rational choice theory in his article, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory’s Mysterious Rivals†. According to Chong, even though Green and Shapiro’s critique against rational choice theory has failed to provide complete form of alternative explanation, there are some theoretical debates and discussions that suggest possible theoretical replacement or revision. Chong argues that, â€Å"Green and Shapiro occasionally allude to the influence of social-psychological and moral factors† such as group loyalties, emotions, political identities, ideology, obligation, and altruism (Friedman 47). As found in Coleman and Fararo’s arguments that institutional or social factors can affect individual’s choice making process, many scholars further their discussion of this social motivation as the alternative of rational choice theory. In his article, â€Å"When Rationality Fails†, Michael Taylor argues that social identification and intrinsic motivation can explain some of significant social phenomenon and collective action that has been ignored by rational choice theory; â€Å"If a person defines herself as a member of a group, or if her membership in a group is made cognitively salient, then she is more likely to observe the group’s norms and cooperate with group members in social dilemmas† (Friedman 230). For intrinsic motivation, Taylor explains that there are some activities that are intrinsically motivating people to be participated such as interesting work, volunteering, and political activities. In this case the activity itself or enjoyment of that activity is the reward for people. When extrinsic rewards like money are introduced, intrinsic motivation would diminish (Friedman 231). By suggesting the concept of social identification and intrinsic motivation, problems of rational choice model for explaining some collective action can be resolved. In this paper, a sense of how rational choice theory works and of its methodological foundations has been introduced. It has also been noticed that rational choice theory is not an ultimate answer. The theory is subject to a number of criticisms, but there is no doubt that its influence in various fields of study have brought tremendous amounts of theoretical debates, and increased the depth of economic, sociological, and political discussions. It is impossible to attain complete knowledge about anything, especially social phenomena. However, it is certain that rational choice approach is one of most crucial theoretical resources for human beings to explore and examine to gain this ultimate answer. It can be useful or misleading, depending on how it is treated. It is responsibility of remaining and future scholars and people to correctly apply and use this theory with open-minded attitude.

Effects of discriminatory practice in Health and social care Essay

The above case study is highlighting discrimination. This is the unequal treatment between individuals and it is a negative action towards members of a certain group. The bases of discrimination include: culture, disability, age, social class, gender, sexual orientation, health status, family status and cognitive ability. The discriminatory practise used in the case of Jeta is predjudice. This is judging someone and making an assumption without having any solid evidence to support the judgement, on the basis of their appearance or what group they belong to. Jeta is experiencing this as her teacher is making a false assumption about her thinking that she is lazy and naughty as her standard of performance in school assesments is decreasing. There are many contributing factors that can lead to the predjudice that Jeta is experiencing. One of these factors is social background. Jeta comes from a â€Å"rough† background, lives alone with her mother who is a single parent and her father is in prison. Another factor leading to predjudice could be socialization. This is when the media create demeaning stereotypes about specific groups of people. The media assumes that if someone is in prison, they are associated with bad behaviour and are automatically given a negative impression on. As Jeta is related to someone in prison, the teacher is assuming that she’s equally as bad and discriminates against her. The teacher is almost â€Å"blaming† the father situation on the poor school work produced by Jeta. Another discriminatory practise that Jeta is experiencing is stereotyping. Stereotyping is a widely held but fixed oversimplified image or idea of a certain type of person. Stereotyping can have a demetrial effect on the individual involved.They involve generalizations about the most common characteristics of members of the group. There are many factors which could suggest why Jeta is being stereotyped. The first is social categorization. This is classifying people into groups based on common attributes that individuals share. In relation to Jeta she is being stereotyped as â€Å"lazy† because the standard of her school assesments are dropping. She is also being stereotyped as â€Å"naughty† and this could be due to the social aspect that her fathers in prision meaning she is being percieved as this naughty child. Another base for discrimination is age. Age discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfairly due to their age without any given justification or reasoning. The fact that the child concerned in this study is of quite a young age of 9 years old means she is more vunerable to age discrimination and this usually occurs because the child is seen to have less social power. Jeta is experiencing age discrimination because she is seen to have less of an authoritive figure compared to her teacher. Children in todays society are more likely to face discrimination due to their dependance on adults and the decisions that are made for them. Children experience discrimination on other grounds including race, gender, social class, health status, disablities and many more. Jeta is being stereotyped as this â€Å"lazy† persona and due to her age, the teacher isn’t listening to her despite being told numerous times by Jeta that she cannot see the board from the back of the classroom. Jeta’s age could be an indicator as to why she is being stereotyped as she is insignificant compared to the teacher and has little or no power so her opinions and views are simply ignored. Another discriminatory practise that Jeta is facing is inequality. This is where people are not treated the same because some individuals have more power, authority, money etc. Jeta is experiencing this as she is not being granted the same opportunities to education and rights to learn as everyone else in her class. Due to this inequality she could be left in a vunerable position as she could be at a risk of falling behind in class and doing even worse in assessments than before. The main base for discrimination is this case study is Jeta’s diability. She has po or sight and this explains her low standard of work in lessons. She is being discriminated for having this disability and this could result in her feeling vunerable and cause low self esteem. She is being segregated from the rest of the class being sent to the back of the classroom and this could knock her confidence. This is also making the situation worse as Jeta will not be able to focus on the tasks set in class as she cannot see what is is being taught. Instead of providing Jeta with the correct additional learning support she requires, the teacher has placed her right at the back of the class, segregated from her other classmates. The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) makes it unlawful to discriminate against someone who has a disability. This act is covered by most sectors including the education sector which means it should be covered in all schools and organisations. The DDA covers eyesight problems so Jeta’s needs should be met. Initially, Jeta’s teacher is being unlawful as she isn’t adjusting to the DDA standards to suit Jeta’s needs. If no changes are made, Jeta’s eyesight could deteriate and worsen. Jeta currently has no glasses or any form of equipment to help imporve her eyesight so being at the back is not helping the situation in regard to Jeta.

Sociological concepts and perspectives from the media Essay

Sociological concepts and perspectives from the media - Essay Example Author and date: Jimmy Wales, 1 March 2011 Source: Guardian online newspaper at http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/mar/01/plagiarism-education-web-wiki-follies The central issue in this article is the problem of people using the web to find and copy material from and passing it off as their own in their academic works, in other words, the problem of plagiarism using web-based sources. It is shown that new online tools are now being used to detect such incidents. The Internet is blamed for fostering â€Å"a cut-and-paste culture of uncritical plagiarism†. The problem is particularly evident among school and university students who copy material directly from sites such as Wikipedia. Two such cases of plagiarism are mentioned involving prominent people. In the first, the German defence minister Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg was found to have plagiarised parts of his PhD from the University of Bayreuth, and consequently resigned. In the second, Saif Gaddafi is mentioned as possibly also having plagiarised his PhD thesis at the London School of Economics. These cases were exposed using specially created wikis on a site named PlagiPedia to handle the large-scale collaborative effort. They used Google Docs earlier but it was found to be only suitable for small group collaboration. The first case took two weeks of effort led by the university â€Å"to identify the specific sections from this thesis that were lifted straight from other sources†. Over 40,000 comments and twelve hundred pages of details of the accusations were compiled. The media and computing professor at the university remarked how fast the revocation decision had been reached. Similar tools are also now available for exposing plagiarism in the media following the unveiling of a ‘churn engine’ called churnalism.com by Britain’s Media Standards Trust. Press releases can now be checked to find out â€Å"the extent to which they have been recycled, verbatim, in on line news articles†. The possibilities brought about by the new online tools are likened to the revolutions currently taking place in the Middle East in which sites such as Twitter and Facebook are playing significant roles. Whereas previously there were typically small committees of experts checking for plagiarism, it is now possible to allow larger collaborative efforts, which are far more effective. However, as pointed out, while such sites can help to initiate activism, ultimately it is the network of people who really know each other face-to-face that bring about the change. This articles highlights two points. Firstly, the ease with which people can plagiarism using web-based sources and secondly, the newer collaboration tools that now make it possible to detect issues of plagiarism. The first shows a modern form of deviance whereby people can get easy access to information and also think they can easily get away with it. The second demonstrates the powerful potential of online collaboration, which is a form of social interaction. In both cases, the Internet plays the central role as the medium of global information and communication. The issue also highlights the need to rethink educational practices and mass media reporting processes. Either plagiarism should be detected more readily to stamp out the practice or the seriousness of the issue should be seen as lending support for completely replacing coursework with exams. Article 2: Youth Culture

Is China's rise an opportunity or a threat to world Essay

Is China's rise an opportunity or a threat to world - Essay Example Munakata (2003) has discussed the impact of China’s rise from a Japanese perspective. He points out that China is viewed as an economic threat because of the high level of imports from China, the rise in foreign direct investment and the inexhaustible supply of low cost hard working laborers, as well as educated engineers and researchers. However, it also provides an opportunity for Japan, because it is the fast growing export market, the profitability of Japanese investments in China has improved considerably, and increased mergers between Chinese and Japanese companies have resulted in a financial windfall for Japan, thus this author concludes that China’s rise is more of an opportunity rather than a threat. According to Lampton (2007), the United States is not making an accurate assessment of China’s rise, since it is focusing on China’s military might. It views China as an emerging military power because the country is too big to compel cooperation, however this could result in unnecessary squandering of resources. Lampton (2007) suggests that instead of viewing China’s rise mainly in terms of its growing strength, there is a need to pay attention to its growth in the economic and intellectual domains. He suggests that the U.S. should focus on ways to improve cooperation and ally with China instead of entering into conflict. Restall(2007) is of the view that China’s military build up is not of a magnitude as to be a source of concern to the United States. The important aspect of this growing military strength is that China is taking on the role of providing military protection to smaller Asian States, which was once the U.S. role. As a result, China poses a threat to the United States hegemony in Asia. It is also entering into pragmatic partnerships with Asian countries and capitalizing on the desire among Asians for self reliance and freedom from outside interference. Therefore China appears poised to play a

Media portrayal of plus size women causes young men to believe that Essay

Media portrayal of plus size women causes young men to believe that overweight women are lazy, unattractive, and ignorant - Essay Example I immediately drop the magazine and start doing sit-ups. Can you blame me?† (Maine 90) This woman is not alone. These images do more damage then many people understand. Women who wear large sizes are judged based on their body, not on other attributes. It does not matter how smart, or how funny they are, what kind of person they are, or even how beautiful their face is. What counts is their size, and they will constantly be judged by that. Often the most painful judgment comes from men; they scorn, they catcall, and they chose to ignore women who do not meet the beauty standard. It is through the media, men learn that women must meet the ideal, or they are not valuable. By looking critically at two media forums, television, and magazines, it is clear that the impact media has on men’s understanding of female beauty and value is directly linked to the false image media has imposed upon society. On of the best loved shows on television has had one of the strongest impacts on men’s understanding of beauty. For ten seasons Friends was adored by fans, and still today is on television everyday. Yet time and again comments were made about weight, and even at nine months pregnant Rachel was not allowed to look over a size eight! One of the most shocking moments comes when they do a clip back in history, and the viewer is taken to watch a scene between Ross, Monica and Chandler. When Chandler first meets Monica, Ross introduces her as â€Å"his little sister.† Chandler, noticing her weight comments, â€Å"yeah, okay.† Later, at a different meeting, when Monica has lost weight, he then finds her incredibly attractive. Although she is the same person, what matters is her outside, not her inside. Another show, discontinued in 1997, was Married†¦with Children. About families, the main character, Al Bundy, works as a shoe salesman, and has particularly negative views of large women. There are constant, negative quotes from the show,

Leadership and Management Issues Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Leadership and Management Issues - Assignment Example Some famous quotations are even written about the meaning of leadership like Warren Bennis saying that â€Å"leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality,† (Corocran 2008, p. 3). The image is very important in leadership as it guides the core values of the leader and the activities and strategies to turn the vision or goal into reality (Anthonissen 2008, p. 48). Another way of defining leadership is according to Gardner that President Harry Truman defines leadership as to â€Å"get other people do what they don’t want to do and like it,†. It means that a good leader should be able to understand his members in the team or organization and he knows how to deal with them. If problems arise, he can think quickly of ways on hot to solve them. He really understands human motivation. It is defined by Hoy and Miskel as cited in Chelladurai (2006, p. 100) as the â€Å"activating forces [†¦] within individuals† which consist of â€Å"memory, aff ective responses, and pleasure-seeking tendencies† as they affect human behaviors and actions with â€Å"a goal orientation.† It can be said that together with leadership and motivation comes management. Management is an old concept. It originated from the Latin word manus which means by hand or power. Management may also come from the Italian word managers are pertaining to officers in charge of a certain production facility. It evolved then into the French manager and later on, it became the English term management.... In the concept of English people, management pertains to business organizations with people working as guides and to supervise the performance of others (Witzel 2004, pp. 1-2). American Management Association in 1980 defined the concept of management and according to the group, â€Å"management is getting things done through other people,† (Montana and Charnov 2008, p. 2). It means the efforts of other people are involved and the management is just the supervision and guidance on the efficiency of the whole group. Currently management can be defined as â€Å"working with and through other people to accomplish the objectives of both the organization and its members† (Montana and Charnov 2008, p. 2). According to Montana and Charnov (2008, p.2), there are three key differences between the two definitions: the employees play the great part in the organization, the focus is the result to be obtained and personal goals are aligned with the organizational goals. The practice of managing people in the organization is called the management process. The management process has six fundamental functions: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling. Planning is the most basic function of management. It is concerned with what, how and when the activities or performance be carried out by an organization. The course of actions is created in the process of planning. It involves the identification of long-term and short-term objectives, creation of strategies and formation of policies and rules to be followed by the members of the organization. Usually the top management creates the initial planning and identification of long-range objectives but the planning function is being done by all managers from all

HR's Role in an Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

HR's Role in an Organization - Essay Example The global products are experienced the world over as Ford Motor Company has divisions for North and South America, Europe, Africa and Asia Pacific. Automotive brands are marketed under the key brands of Lincoln and Ford. Ford Credit is the company tasked with provision of financial services which include Extended Service Plan, Motorcraft, Quicklane and Quality Care. Customer service in Ford is designed to give maximum satisfaction to the customer at the various Ford dealerships. Manufacturing by the company is also carried out globally where engine plants, assembly plants and transmission plants are located. The services are in regards to Ford engineered parts, trained technicians and instant servicing shops. Environmental sustainability is a key operational process where the emphasis is on efficiency in the manufacturing process, introducing cuts on vehicle emissions and the adoption of recyclable material. The company is also focused on enabling communities in which it exists in as well as building stronger relationships (Ford Motor Co, 2011). The company is experiencing enormous financial losses as well as losses of market share to competitors and thus necessitating a comprehensive strategic plan. Competition is increasingly becoming stiffer; the skyrocketing costs backed up by unused capacity at some plants are choking the profits. The management at Ford has come up with a strategic plan labeled The Way Forward. This comprises of a plan to close down a number of plants and lay off 20,000 employees. In line with the management norms at Ford, the strategic plan is meant to balance internal strengths and weaknesses with opportunities and challenges that lie in the external environment. It is only then that the enterprise will gain competitive advantage. The management has formulated a specific HR course of action to take the company to the next level and beyond. However,

Measuring performance standards Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Measuring performance standards - Research Paper Example This paper will discuss the hospital’s patient falls, hospital acquired infection, and patient satisfaction regarding data collection. It includes other examples of data management and display tools in performance and quality improvement and their use in healthcare. Patient Falls The term ‘fall’ of a patient describes â€Å"a person coming to rest inadvertently on the ground or at a lower level† (Registered Nurses Association of Ontario, 2007, p. 2). Whether the resulted injury is mild or severe, health institutions recognize how it affects the patients and could lead to other complications, aside from the current illness the patient possesses. According to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (2010), falls represented nearly 47% of all safety reports and aggregated events in 2003 comprising about 11% of all root cause analyses. The statistics is relatively high and consequently calls for immediate prevention. In order to properly monitor and prevent the patient falls, the hospital needs data designed to assess this problem. According to the Veterans Health Administration National Center for Patient Safety (n.d.), there are three simple rules to carry out proper measures: (a) the data should contain a numerator and a denominator to determine the ratio of patient falls and persons to assist intervention; (b) the data should â€Å"specify the time in which the information [is] collected† (p. 70), making the range of time for each set of data equal, which is one of the factors of accuracy; (c) the data should mention measurement strategy (as cited in Joint Commission Resources, Inc [JCR], 2006). Appropriate strategies are a vital part of a reliable patient falls’ data (as cited in Joint Commission Resources, Inc [JCR], 2006). Furthermore, a reliable data is a product of a long-term research. For example, Morse’s (2008) research about patient falls where it took her â€Å"32 years to collect enough data† (p. xi). Therefore, a data collection that ranges in weeks would not be reliable, but consistent data collection for a period of predetermined years would provide a solid base to design interventional strategies. Hospital Acquired Infection Hospital acquired infection is one of the dangers originated by poor sanitation of hospital equipments and improper use and disposal of hospital waste. The World Health Organization (2002) stated, â€Å"infections acquired in health care settings are among the major causes of death and increased morbidity among hospitalized patients† (p. 1). Since these infections affect both developed and underdeveloped countries, all medical centers should be aware of its prevention. The American Hospital Association Resource Center (2010) recorded about 42,000 adult patients acquired infection during their hospital stay. It is, then, reasonable to apply appropriate measures to prevent such incident. Prevalence and incidence data provide the best way to mon itor hospital-acquired infection. The data should contain all the records that reported incidents of infection to assure reliability. In that way, there will be accurate surveillance about the improvement of the hospital with regard to these cases. In some countries, including the United States, data reporting of hospital-acquired infection is mandatory and reported on a quarterly basis (Horton & Parker, 2002). Patient Survey Satisfaction One of the determinants of the quality of service is patient satisfaction. As Shelton (2000) explained,

New businesses Essay Example for Free

New businesses Essay Consistent findings have imperatively indicated that the correlation between firm entry and survival is negative. Out of every one hundred new businesses introduced in the UK, 50 percent of them become obsolete before their third anniversary. Such high attrition levels are not only evident UK in alone but also in most modern economies and can be said to be a generic rule of thumb. Just why is it that so many nascent firms end up accomplishing little or nothing before they finally become extinct? Is it that their owners do not put enough efforts into the business development or are there other internal and external causes of this prevalent occurrence of business failure? Many theories have been put forth to explain the possible causes of the high rates of new business failure. It is not surprising that major diagnoses of the root causes of low survival rate in new businesses identify management inefficiency as one of the causes of the high attrition levels. Policy makers have also been blamed for recommending entrepreneurship as the solution to rejuvenating the economy yet little is done to educate people on what to expect amid globalization pressures, competition and technological changes that are likely to impact on the business survival. Other theories put forward include the supportive environment thesis, nature of activity and industry theory. Firm survival can however be properly classified in three explanatory dimensions: The firms specific characteristics; Operational factors and the business cycle. This paper explores the characteristics of business failure under these three dimensions and at the same time introduces a discussion on how entrepreneurs can enhance their businesss chances of survival by providing possible solutions to the low levels of survival witnessed in infant businesses. II. Analysis a) Definitions Birth of the firm: The introduction of a business marks the birth of a firm. This may actually start when the idea of the business is borne. Consequent activities such as registering the company, acquiring premises and capital are secondary elements in the birth of a business. Survival of the firm: Survival of the firm refers to its ability to withstand internal and external pressures to meet the objectives for which it was established. Survival determines whether a firm makes it through its lifetime or whether it fails and consequently exits the market. Death of the firm: This denotes the final stage in a business at a point where nothing can be done to revive the business and the only solution is complete closure. Termination of the firm as a legal entity: This means that the business is no longer recognized by the law. It means that a business in the context of the law is no longer operational and it is therefore not liable to debts, taxes among other liabilities to stakeholders. b) New Firms Survival Literature New businesses in the UK have in the past shown high levels of business failures witnessed within the first three years of inception. According to Caliendo and Fossen (2009: 154) at least fifty out of every one hundred new businesses introduced did not make it to their third birthday. A study by the DTI Small Business Service from 1995 to 2004 reveals that these failures are actually vary with industries which could be attributed to the various conditions that exist in these sectors (DTI, 2007: 13). On average, 82% of new businesses established survived the first year in business. Improvement has been recorded and by 2004, an average of 58% of new businesses survived the first three years over all the sectors. Detailed survey results are shown in table 1 and 2. c) Why Half of Nascent Firms Fail: The Survival Explanatory Dimensions 1) Firm Specific Characteristics i)Managerial Organization Discernible management errors and high incidents of poor management highly contribute to the low survival rates of newly established firms. The death of many firms is mostly characterized by management which has turned out to be reactionary. Inefficient decision making and inadequate or non-existent planning will have contributed to the failure of the business in at least 30 percent of nascent firms (Phillips, 2004: 68-70). Veronique and Wever (2000: 138) note that managers inability to react to various forces affecting the business operations such as competition, technological advancements, economic trends and money issues could lead to the ultimate downfall of a business. Inadequacy in management expertise is essentially attributable for the business failure to explore alternative financing options leading to bankruptcy. ii)Inadequacy of Cash Reserves Inadequate financing comes in as a close second after poor management. New owners with little or no prior experience in business may fail to effectively predict cash flow. Miscalculation of amounts required to sustain the business before it picks up and underestimation of the costs associated with borrowing money are the major causes of financial strain (Lane and Schary, 1991: 101-103). Exhaustion of cash reserves is also likely to be influenced by poor pricing, over-investment in fixed assets and uncontrolled growth. Uncontrolled growth occurs when the owners want to take up every opportunity that comes so that at the end of it all they cannot satisfy all their customers. In this case, firms end up borrowing large amounts to meet the high demand and when the loans cannot be paid effectively, what results is collapse of the firm (Audretsch and Keilbach, 2004: 423). Other causes include over dependence on a few customers, fraud and uncontrolled drawings by the owner. iii)Poor debt management and Over-borrowing This is closely associated with cash inadequacy and it results where managers are ill-equipped in financial management. Small business owners are likely to obtain the wrong type of financing and worse still take more than the business can afford to pay (Jostarndt, 2007: 139). This may lead to borrowing loans to clear existing ones which is not a good debt management strategy. Inability to pay debts on time and lack of coordination between incoming cash and outgoing cash may lead to the business finally going bankrupt and consequently causing its death. iv)Ownership Status There are two ways of looking at this perspective: the legal ownership and the reasons for starting the business. A sole proprietorship business is more likely to fail due to financial and management problems than a partnership or a limited company. The reasons for starting the business can highly influence a firms survival. Moore and Gooderl (2008: 8-10) name two types of entrepreneurs: the opportunity entrepreneur and the necessity entrepreneur. The former establishes a business to exploit available business opportunity while the latter may start up a business for the purpose of sustaining himself probably if he cannot find a job. According to Moore and Gooderl (2008: 16-17) the opportunity entrepreneur is likely to succeed while the necessity entrepreneur may not exert enough efforts towards the business. The increased number of necessity entrepreneurs in the UK has highly increased the failure levels in new businesses. v)Personal Characteristics of the owner This mostly has to do with the attitude of the owner and the manner in which he or she applies these in the business context. Owners make a mistake of taking up all responsibilities without making use of delegation to junior employees as a result of fearing that they may not do it perfectly. Jensen (1976: 335) describes this as the challenge of letting go. Owners normally find themselves exhausted from overwork and yet do not find time to address important issues facing the business. Use of business funds by the owner can also cause detrimental effects on the business. Personal attitudes such as aggressiveness and lack of concern for the employees may cause high rate of employee turnover as well as keep away customers (Daily et al, 2002: 398-343). vi)Innovation and reaction to technological changes The world is advancing at a high rate and technology is one of the areas that a business needs to keep up with. Many new businesses fail due to being left behind in technological advancements such that they are overtaken by their competitors who take with them all the customers (Agarwal, 1996: 103-106). Innovation is one of the major tools for a successful business and this is one area that new businesses have not been able to address mainly due to lack of enough capital to come up with new products and services. viii)Poor knowledge of the market Most business owners enter the market with little knowledge about what to expect. Failing to conduct market feasibility studies limit the owners knowledge on the competitors in the market and their influence; the customers characteristics and behaviour and various market fluctuations they are likely to encounter (Covin et al, 2000: 199-206). 2) Operational factors i) Competition New businesses are often overwhelmed by the efforts required to counter competition from already existing firms. This is considering that these firms have already established their customer base and winning loyal customers could prove quite a challenging task for new businesses. Usually, dominant competitors may even device ways of putting new entrants out of business such as lowering prices and offering discounts (Covin et al, 2000: 200). Their aim is to push the new competitors until they cannot keep up with the situation such that they eventually quit. ii) Location The location of a business is a major determinant for its survival. New businesses in rural areas are likely to fail due to limited local markets and isolation. On the other hand high costs, presence of large firms and regulatory barriers pose challenges to businesses located in the urban areas (Sutaria and Donald, 2004: 250-253). 3)Changes in Business Cycle i)Macroeconomic growth and economic pressures New businesses are usually unable to handle economic shocks that may result from high interest rates, fluctuations in exchange rates and general inflation. According to David and Mahmood (1995: 89-93) not many businesses survive an economic surge or a recessionary period which may lead to skyrocketing of supply prices and high costs of borrowing. ii)Entering Cohorts exit rate Cohorts refer to groups with similar characteristics. The result of exit of similar businesses can either have a positive or negative effect on a new business. Exit may mean less competition which is an advantage. New firms however rely on one another for inspiration. A person operating a business where everyone is quitting due to one reason or another is bound to get disillusioned and have the attitude that his business may fail too (Phillips, 2004: 69-71). iii)Changes in legal environment When the laws of a country change, new businesses are likely to suffer since they are not yet stable enough to cushion themselves from such changes. Amendment of tax laws and business requirements may cause a new business to go bankrupt. d) Increasing Survival Chances Strategies to increase the chances of survival for a business entail addressing the leading causes of failure. The most fundamental requirement is the improvement of the management capabilities. When there is good management in a firm, other factors will follow suit because every operation of the business is determined by the management (Sutaria and Donald, 2004: 253-255). Improvement of communication within the business and proper sharing of duties are skills that the owners of the business need to acquire. This can be done through attending management and entrepreneurial seminars and conferences so as to learn secrets of firm survival from professionals. Proper planning is the ideal solution to financial problems. Veronique and Wever, 2000: 139-141) refers adequate anticipation of cash flow as the secret to overcoming financial problems for starters. This could be done through the help of an expert if the owner is not in a position to do so. Finding alternative sources of finance apart from the usual ones is key in preventing the collapse of a business due to lack of funds. There are many available sources of finance including bank loans, credit card advances, sale of assets among others (Moore and Gooderl, 2008: 298-299). Care should then be taken to make sure the finances are properly utilized. The firm should avoid relying on a few customers because huge losses can be felt if the customers suddenly withdraw. Instead, they should aim at a large customer base. Over-borrowing can be reduced through making proper cash forecasts and using the limited resources that the business has. In essence, the firm can adopt a steady growth over time instead of rushing to expand at once (Daily et al, 2002: 399-401). Finally, the management should be keen in managing the debts of the business keenly balancing the income and expenditure so as to cover all liabilities and debts in time. A business must clearly identify its customers and establish whether they can sustain the business effectively considering the level of competition. This can be done prior to the business establishment through a market feasibility studies while answering the following questions: How many competitors are in the area you plan to establish your business? Who will be the businesss customers and what are their buying habits? What is the level of loyalty of these potential customers to the current suppliers? Are they likely to buy your product? Is the product seasonal? Is it possible to make profit out of the business? Once these questions are answered, the likelihood of failure can be minimized as specific strategies to address the issues can be formulated (Audretsch and Thurik, 2007: 113-141). Business owners must realize that they cannot do everything by themselves. Employers can delegate and allow employees to make certain decisions. Consequently, owners will have ample time to concentrate on more important business issues such as finding new customers, getting more funds for the business as well as solving the current issues facing the business (Daily et al, 2002: 403-405). The need for long-term planning is inevitable. This involves planning for growth and transition in the future. It also involves planning for uncertainties such as loss of employees, customers and suppliers. In the wake of the high global trade advancement and changes in the market, businesses should always be alert to avoid being taken unaware by advancements in technology, innovation and changes in customer preferences and culture (Zoltan, 1988: 321). Legal changes and changes in tax systems should be catered for in the long-term business plan. The state of the economy is bound to change from time to time which is why firms must anticipate for any future economic shocks through investing in stocks, futures, options among others. Insurance is also an option for more larger firms. III. Conclusion No environment can be said to specifically favour new firms in all angles hence the need for those starting new firms to be overly cautious. Firms are most definitely exposed to numerous risks that may lead to their extinction as indicated in this discussion. Management is identified as the root cause of low survival rates among nascent firms and its improvement could work to solve the predicament presently being witnessed in new firm survival. Proper balancing of the firms cash reserves; being generally alert to any changes in the business environment; making informed decisions to deal with these changes coupled with excellent management practices is exactly what is needed to save young firms from their predicament and promote their longevity.

Lincoln and Kennedy Assassination Similarities Essay Example for Free

Lincoln and Kennedy Assassination Similarities Essay Similarities between the Lincoln and Kennedy Assassinations Both American presidents Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy (JFK) were tragically assassinated during their terms in office. Both men, admired by many, were hated by many who opposed their political views. Very shortly after the Kennedy assassination in November of 1963, a strikingly similar comparison of the circumstances of his death and the death of Lincoln in 1865 surfaced media everywhere. These comparisons have both fueled conspiracies and pointed out some amazingly specific coincidences. Some examples include: -Lincoln was elected to Congress in 1846/Kennedy was elected to Congress in 1946 -Lincoln was elected president in 1860/Kennedy was elected president in 1960 -Both of their wives lost a child while living in the White House -Both were directly concerned with Civil Rights -Lincoln had a secretary named Kennedy who warned him not to go to the theater/Kennedy had a secretary named Lincoln who warned him not to go to Dallas -Both were shot in the back of the head in front of their wives -Lincoln was shot in the Ford Theatre/Kennedy was shot in a Lincoln (made by Ford) -Both shot on Fridays -Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and fled to a warehouse/Oswald shot Kennedy from a warehouse and fled to a theater -Both assassins were killed before being brought to trial -Lincolns successor was Andrew Johnson (born in 1808)/Kennedys successor was Lyndon Johnson (born in 1908) -both presidents last names contain letters While entertaining, most people argue that these coincidences could have occurred to anyone. Several say that similarities between two people can be found easily with a small analysis. Nevertheless, the conspiracy boggles the minds of Americans daily.

Cultural Competency of Nurses

Cultural Competency of Nurses 1.1 Cultural competency The commitment to equality in health care provision is ingrained within the core values of the health care profession and nurses are expected to fulfill these requirements. The Nursing and Midwifery Councils (NMC) Code of Professional Conduct clearly states that nurses must treat every patient as individual, respect their dignity and not to discriminate irrespective of age, ethnicity or cultural background (Husband and Torry 2004a). The NMC (2004) emphasises that culturally competent care is moral and legal requirement for nurses. Thus the requirement for the development of cultural competence is to be found within the NMC code of conduct. Josipovic (2000) points out that the delivery of individualised care, in consideration of religious and cultural requirements of Black and Ethnic Minorities (BME) patients can assist nurses to fulfill their obligations. However, there is no universal definition of cultural competence; Campinha-Bacote (2002) defines cultural competence as a process, which requires the health care professional to continuously attempt to gain the ability to work competently with the cultural context of the patient. Nevertheless Papadopoulas et. al. (1998) defines cultural competence as the ability to give effective care while taking into account patients specific cultural needs, behaviors and beliefs. Narayata definition Nonetheless, there has been significant discussion of different models of cultural competence in nursing literature (Gunaratnam, 2007). Campinha-Bacote (1998) model of cultural competence: the process of cultural competence in the delivery of health care service, identifies five essential constructor of cultural competence: Cultural awareness Cultural knowledge Cultural skill Culturally encounter Culturally desire Conversely the Papadopoulas et. al. (1998) model of developing cultural competence consists of four stages: Cultural awareness, Cultural knowledge, Cultural sensitivity and Cultural competent. Rosenjack Burchum (2002) identified the attributes of cultural competence as same as those of Papadopolos et al (1998) but adds cultural understanding, and cultural skill as essential attributes. Cultural competence is, according to Rosenjack Burchum (2002), the development of knowledge and skill manifested by the synthesis of the above attributes and their respective dimensions in human interaction. Although there is distinction in the models of cultural competence they all express common concern of three main components: cultural sensitivity, cultural knowledge and cultural skills (Gogwin et al. 2001). According to Garity (2000) cultural competence involves having understanding and sensitivity toward different cultural groups and factors that affect their lives such as immigration, discrimination and the possibility for these factors to improve or inhibit professional practice. Hence, for a nurse to become cultural competent s/he needs to develop an understanding of ones own cultural needs, views, beliefs, behavior and those of the patient while avoiding stereotyping and generalisation (http://www.culturediversity.org/cultcomp.htm). The aim is to ensure that the health care services and professionals are respectful and responsive to the health beliefs, practices, cultural and linguistic needs of diverse patients, which can help bring about positive health outcome (http://minori tyhealth.hhs.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=2lvl). Cultural competency is a process that needs to be continuously developed in order to enhance ones ability to give affective health care (Papadopoulos 2006). All registered nurses have the responsibility to competently maintain professional knowledge and practice by ensuring up to date knowledge, skill and ability as well as safe and effective practice (NMC2008). Although the NMC clearly places the individual with the responsibility of developing cultural competence, it should be acknowledged that individuals alone cannot be held responsible for the delivery of culturally safe and competent health care service if insufficient resources are not made available (Husband and Torry, 2004a). Nonetheless, Dreher and MacNaughton (2002) described cultural competence as the same as nursing competence; the ability to deliver care individualised and therapeutic to each patient despite social context or cultural background, this being the signature of contemporary nursing. However, the basic principle of providing nursing care to culturally diverse populations is not an entirely new idea, as the need for such was recognised in the United States in the late 1800s (Davis, 1996) and was also recognized by Florence Nightingale when advising British nurses working in India (Wilkins, 1993). In the last century, most western countries saw significant changes in the make up of their populations due to increased trends in global migration that resulted in multiethnic and multi-religious societies. In the UK BME groups make up 7.9 % of the total population (Office for National Statistics, 2001). As the population becomes more diverse so does the complexity of the patients needs that the nurse must address (Black, 2008). Thus far, the need for the nurses to become culturally competent has become import (Black, 2008, Gunaratnam, 2007).The pertinent literature highlights that, in the last few decades, scholars and researchers have debated the issue relating to the delivery of appropriate nursing care to meet the needs of BME groups (refs). There is a growing body of evidence that show there are inadequacies in the nursing care provided to these groups (Vydelingum, 2006, Cortis, 2004) and concerns about ethnic disparities in health in the UK (Aspinall and Jacboson, 2004). Studi es on utilisation of hospital services by BME patients, in particular the elderly have consistently demonstrated level of dissatisfaction with the care provided from cultural and/or religious viewpoints (DoH, 2009; Clegg, 2003; Patel, 2001; Cortis, 2000, Vydelingum 2000) 1.2 BME Elders Nevertheless, the concept of the ageing population is one that has generated much discussion in the UK (Caldwell et al, 2008) as this age group is the main users of both health and social care services (Department of Health, 2001). While all older people have common needs and experiences of hospitals, the needs and experiences of the BME older people are shaped by their race and ethnicity (Ahmad, 1993; Blakemore and Boneham, 1994). Majority of todays BME elders are yesterdays young migrants from the commonwealth countries (Patel, 2001), who came to the UK during the 20th century as a result of government policy to fill labour shortage (Houston and Cowley, 2002). According to Evandrou, (2006) in 2001 4% of the BME population were over 65 and this number is rapidly rising, from approximately 60 000 in 1981 to about 360 000 in 2001-2002 (Butt and ONeil, 2004, Beaven, 2006) and is expected to increase in the next 15 years (Evandrou, 2000). These elderly groups have particularly been disadvantaged by the cumulative effect of age, race and inaccessibility to services (Norman, 1985). However, newly arrived migrants are likely to share similar concerns and experience in hospital care (Patel, 2001). The 2001 and earlier censuses show that health disparities exist in the UK and that levels of long term illness are higher in older BME groups than in the general population (From A Szczepura 2005).Older people from BME are report more chronic illnesses such as cardio-vascular disease, diabetes, hypertension and stroke when compared to the majority (Tilke, 1998; Ebrahim, 1999; Evandrou, 2000b). An appreciation of the health care needs of this group is vital in understanding the difficulties they face in accessing health care services (Toofany, 2007). One occurring theme connected with old age and ethnicity that has been repeatedly identified from the1980s until today is the lack of urgency over government action for the group (Norman, 1985, Patel, 1990, Lindesay, 1997, Patel, 2001). The Policy Research Institution on Aging and Ethnicity (PRIAE) highlights that these groups are not normally considered in old age research (Patel, 2003). Hoong Sin, (2003) points out that BME older people in the UK are disadvantaged by the lack of a reliable sampling frame. Although there are few national studies, most research projects are small and involve localised samples (Hoong Sin 2003). Therefore the infrastructure for doing research with such population groups is inadequately set up (Hoon Sin, 2003). In PRIAEs view we have had too much discussion, action is overdue (Patel, 2001). This information suggests that BME elderly groups have never been a priority on the agenda for research or policy makers in the health care services. Saleh (2009) su ggests that the introduction of the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000 increased pressure on health care organisations to adapt services to ensure equitable access for local all BME groups. On the other hand, Department of Health (DoH) ensures that reducing health disadvantage and social exclusion for BME elders is central to UK health and social policy (DoH, 2001b). The DoH made specific commitments, in the National Standards, Local Action, to improve quality of service for BME where they are disadvantaged in terms of health (refs). This approach according to Papadopoulos et al. (2006) is a sign that the NHS is undergoing modernization. Unfortunately, the last two National Patient Survey Programme reports (2008 2009) show the experiences of all BME groups (with the exception of those from the Irish community) are significantly less likely to be positive than those of the indigenous populations. From a nursing aspect this outcome questions the nurses competence in delivering culturally appropriate care. The literature available identifies cultural competency as one of the main factor that can help cease the inequalities in health care system (refs). According to Papadopoulos et al. (1999) although mention of the term cultural competence in DoH and National Health Services (NHS) documents has increased, there is no attention to what this actually means for patients or nurses and how it could be measured. Having and implementing clear, strong policies on race and equality is essential for health and social care organisations but this has to be supported with training and education (PRIAE, 2005). Consequently, Dreher and MacNaughton (2002) doubted whether cultural knowledge translated into culturally specific care would necessarily result in improved clinical outcomes or the reduction of health disparities. 2. The review Aim and Research Strategies 2.1 Aim Nurses are at the front line of care for BME older people in hospital therefore it is important that the care delivered is in line with what is viewed as appropriate by the patients to their needs. The Department of Health openly acknowledges that much remains to be done in terms of measuring older patients experiences of the process of care, respect, dignity, information and education (Shaw and Wilson, 2008). This review, therefore, intends to bring together the literature concerning nurses views of what is essential in delivering culturally appropriate care to BME older patients as well as this groups expectations and experiences of nursing care. The aim is to explore the cultural competency of nurses in caring for BME elderly patients in Hospital setting. 2.2 Search Strategy (Include: inclusion/exclusion criteria, databases searched, keywords, languages and inclusive dates of the literature searched.) Search Term Search was carried out using combination of keywords such as Nurses, Cultural Competence/Awareness/Sensitivity, Geriatric, Elderly/Older, Black and Minority Ethnic and Experiences/Views. Furthermore, concepts relevant to hospital care such as Dignity, Respect and Appropriate Care were searched in combination with the above key terms. Databases The electronic databases British Nursing Index, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Assia and Cochrane Library were searched to identify peer-reviewed literature published in the English language between 1990 and 2010 that are UK based. The databases yielded XXX potential studies relevant to the topic under review. Further search was conducted in the World Wide Web using the same key words and it produced xxx studies. The websites of the Department of Health, Transcultural Nursing Society, Royal Collage of Nursing and relevant Third Sector Organisations such as Age Concern, and PRIAE were also accessed which yielded XXX literature. Further literature was gained from the reference and the bibliography of the gathered data as well as the library of the University. The titles and abstracts of the obtained literature were examined and studies focusing on care provided by nurses to BME elderly patients as well as studies examining the views/experiences of hospital care by this particular geriatric group were selected. For the purpose of the literature review an older person is defined as person older than 50 years. NSF considers an older person as a person who is over the age of 50 years. Yet, a limited numbers of studies (how many) about BME elders in hospital setting were identified. For this reason studies focusing on the topic that had a wide range of age sample group i.e. 30-80 were included as it would assist in identifying additional pertinent literature. In total, XX studies were identified to meet the inclusion criteria for the literature review. The literature selected were mainly primary empirical studies using qualitative approach. A qualitative research aims to understand the feelings, values, and perceptions that under lie and influence behavior (xxxx). Therefore the use of a qualitative methodology is seen to be appropriate as all the studies examine the experiences of the BME patients through their own eyes and those of the nurses (from internet). 2.3 Critical Appraisal of Three Qualitative Studies on the Experiences of Nurses in Caring for BME Patients and BME patients Experiences of Nursing Care Cortis (2004) Meeting the Needs of Minority Ethnic Patients Clegg (2003) Older South Asian patients and Care Perceptions of Culturally Sensitive Care In a Community Hospital Setting Hamilton and Essat (2008) Minority Ethnic Users Experiences and Expectations of Nursing Using Caldwells frameworks for critiquing health research, the three above stated studies will be analyzed systematically and supporting/contradicting evidence from other studies will be offered. WHY USE THIS FRAME WORK? Following the discussion of the review themes will be identified. Title Although the title of the study of Cortis is brief and conveys the nature of the study (Polit and Beck, 2010), it could be viewed as misleading as it gave the impression that the sample group was representative of different communities of BME groups. However, the study specifically focuses on the Pakistani ethnic community. Conversely, the titles of the researches by Clegg (2003) and Hamilton and Essat (2008) are short, accurate and clearly specifies what and who is being studied while reflecting the study content (Burns, 2000). The Researchers Academic and Professional Qualification The authors of the three researches have particular interest about the topic in question, which gives the assumption that they are familiar or have professional insights. The qualification (PhD, MsC) of the researchers is relevant as it indicates that they are competent and have creditability to carry out researches. Further evidence to support researchers knowledge and interest of the topic was demonstrated as they are all nurses with extensive experience; Cortis is a senior lecturer at the University of Leeds with Qualitative Research interest in ethnicity and BME issues. Clegg is a consultant in older peoples services and intermediate care at Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust. Hamilton was a principal lecturer at De Montfort University with research interests in multi-ethnic care and Essat was research assistant at the same university working on a project exploring the educational preparation of student nurses to work in a culturally diverse way. Abstract and Rationale A qualitative study must offer an abstract containing summary of study aim/objectives, research approach, methods adapted and the result of the study including the clinical applications (Cormack, 1996). Bellow the abstract there should be key words related to the study offering the reader an overview of the research question. All studies have offered a comprehensive abstract with key words relevant to their topics. Clear rationale for undertaking the study was given by all researchers; Cortis rationale was the fact that there is little exploration of nurses experiences of caring for specific BME community while Cleggs rationale was that there is a lack of research defining the concept of cultural sensitive care from patient/care perspective. Lastly, the rationale provided by Hamilton and Asset is that, nationally, there is an evidence to suggest that care provided doesnt always meet the needs of BME patients. LR All three researchers did review pertinent literature (classics up to date), which was evident in the studies as well as the reference list. According to Doordan (1999) the literature offered should have discussed and critically reviewed related literature to find out what questions remains to be answered. Nevertheless, only Clegg (2003) provided a separate section for LR, which she must be praised for (Morse, 1994). In grounded theory studies, researchers start with data collection first and as the data is analysed and as the theory takes shape researchers then begin to search the literature in order to link it to the emerging theory (Polit and Beck, 2010), which was evident in Cleggs study. Aim The three studies clearly identify and justify their aims. Cortiss (2004) argues that in a number of studies BME are seen as homogeneous therefore the aim of his study is to investigate a specific communitys uniqueness: the experiences of nurses caring for Pakistani patients in north England. However, this aim is inconsistence with the title of study, which clearly treats BME as a homogeneously. WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? While the aim of the Clegg (2003), was to identify older south Asian patients and carers perception of culturally sensitive care. Lastly, the aim of the research by Hamilton and Asset (2008) was to give the minority ethnic groups the opportunity to voice their opinions on nursing care and to inform future nursing education. Ethical Issues Both Cortis and Clegg clearly highlight that permission to do the study was sought from the Local Research Ethics Committee (LREC), which is an imperative step before conducting any research. However, Hamilton and Essat (2008) omit to mention whether appropriate approval was gained from LRECs; who exist to examine proposed research projects in order to guard peoples rights and interests (Cormack, 2000). All the researchers have to be praised for specifying the process and purpose of the study was explained to the participants before the study in order to obtain informed consent. Cortis (2004) clearly specifies that assurance was given to maintain confidentiality and anonymity of the sample group, which is something Hamilton and Essat (2008) fail to address in their study. Both Cortis and Hamilton Asset dont comment on the associated ethical issues of autonomy, non-maleficience and beneficence, (Cormack, 20000). Nevertheless, Clegg considered the vulnerability of the participants (Gerrish and Lacey 2006, Speziale and Carpenter 2007) and therefore committed to the ethical principles of autonomy, non-maleficience and beneficence (RCN, 2004), but fails to mention how confidentiality and anonymity was maintained. Clegg showed sensitivity towards the participants by informing them the voluntary nature of the research with the option of being able to withdraw at any time. This implies a non-coerciveness approach which was important in this study as this was vulnerable group. Conversely, The three studies inform that permission was sought from the participant to audio-tape the interviews but omit to identify where data was stored and the disposal procedure used (Polit and Beck, 2008). This supports the premise that data used for a particular project should not be used for another without consent (Gerrish and Lacey, 2006). Methodological Both Cortis and Hamilton Essat (2008) fail to specify that the method used was phenomenological-exploratory, which is useful when studying individuals lived experiences (Crookes and Davies, 1998). The main methodological strength of using phenomenological in these studies is that it is an inductive and holistic approach that looks at what occurs within (Crookes and Davies, 1998). Both of the studies focus was on the unique experiences of providing care by nurses to BME patients and perception of BME older patient views/expectations of nursing care. The biggest methodological limitation for using phenomenological in these studies is that it is labour intensive and time consuming for the researchers in terms of data collection and analysis (Crookes and Davies, 1998). Clegg, on the other hand, identifies the methodology utilized as grounded theory, which is useful when studying individuals XXXX (GG). Methodological strength associated with the use of this approach in this study is xxxx x. Methodological weakness associated with the use of this approach in this study is The three studies clearly identify the major concepts of the design used and their concepts, which are what? Sampling Technique and method According to Polit and Beck, (2010) in qualitative research there is no rule for sample size as long as data saturation achieved. The sample number (n=30) used by Cortis was considered to be suitable for qualitative research (Cormack 1999) why? However, the sample number by Clegg was four patients and three relatives. Clegg states in her study that she is not sure if data saturation has been achieved. Morse (2000 in polit and beck book) suggests that number of participants required to reach saturation is a firmed by number of factors, such as the wider the research question the more participants necessary. This gives the impression that the sample size could have been too small for the scope of the research question hence why saturation was not reached (Morse 2000) possibly due to time or budget constraints (ref). Sampling number for Hamilton and Essat: six focus groups, member of which range from 8 to 15 (? large sample number for qualitative). All three researches state how many participants were recruited and from where; areas with high population of BME. Cortis participants were recruited from a large acute hospital in north England and Clegg recruited this sample from a two community Hospital inner city and Hamilton and Essat recruited their sample of 6 diverse BME communities groups. The researchers must be praised for providing a clear indication of inclusive/exclusive criteria, in the process of recruiting participants. In contrast the three studies fail to identify the sampling methods and techniques used but inferred from the research studies is that non-probability method of purposive sampling was employed (Cormack, 1996). The method of purposive/judgmental sampling relies on the belief that researcher have enough knowledge about the population to be able to pick sample members (Polit and Bechk, 2010). The main strength associated with the use of purposive sampling in these studies is that the researchers purposively choose the participants knowing they would give relevant information about the topic in question (Polit and Beck, 2008). However, one main limitation is that this technique relies upon the researchers knowledge of cultural competence of nurses (Polit and Beck, 2008). Method of Data Collection All researchers collected data by audio taping interview and transcription. Cortis, Clegg and Hamilton Assset adapted different types qualitative self-reporting technique, which is flexible in gathering self-reported information as it allows the participants to express their views in a naturalistic way (Polit and Beck, 2008). Data collection is described by Cortis as semi-structured interviews and supplementary questions to follow-up for clarification. Cortis informs that most interviews were done in the clinical area; implying that participant had choice of venue, which he must be commend for. However, he omits to state where the rest of the interviews were done. WHY IS VITAL TO GIVE PARTICIPANTS CHOICE OF VENUE? Nevertheless, Cleggs choice of data collection was unstructured interview that were done in the first language of the interviewee. Cross validation of the taped interviews was under taken by a second linguist. Both Cortis and Clegg fail to point out who/how many people performed the interview. Interview performed by one person provides uniformity and consistency (Denscombe, 2003). On the contrary, method of data collection used by Hamilton and Essat was focus group, which was sub-divided into 6 groups where each group had facilitator. The advantage with use of this method in this study is it can generate a lot of dialogue but the disadvantage is that not everyone is comfortable experiences their experiences/view in front of others (Polit and Beck, 2010). Overall, an advantage associated with the use of all interview technique utilized is that the interviewer can observe the participants non-verbal responses, which can provide valuable information (Burns 2000). Some of the main methodological limitation with the use of this method in these studies is that it was done in face to face, which could jeopardize the participants anonymity since they were identifiable for the interviewer (Cormack, 1996). Method of Data Analysis All the researches used thematic content analysis, which is creditable method of data collection (xxxx). Only Hamilton and Asset clearly stated the method used and who analysed the data: two members of the team. What does this mean for the research? Cortis transcribed the interviews himself to became personally immersed in the information. What does this mean for the research? Clegg points out that Micro-analysis of the data were used to identify categories but fail to say who analysed data. Having different people conducting the interview and the analysis of the texts can have an impact on the richness of the analysis performed (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Nonetheless, steps were taken by all researchers to uphold the rigour of the interpretation by checking the transcript with the participants to ensure correctness, which gave the data conformability and credibility (Forchuk and Roberts, 1993). They also must be praised for indicating that the data was analysed systematically in several steps. However, they all fail to state the type of qualitative software used to categorise the information i.e. Ethnograph and if it was positive or negative to the analysis (Barnard, 1991). (Clegg: Triangulation was introduced into the process of data analysis, which was carried out by a colleague from India). The methodological strength linked to the utilisation of this thematic content analysis in these studies is that it is commonly used in qualitative research and is suitable the three study aims. Limitation would be this analysis includes gathering statements on the bases of similarity and frequency with the aim of making them to themes (Barnard, 1991). It could be argued that by doing so the researchers are using a quantities method of analysis for qualitative data as each data is not being treated uniquely (Barnard, 1991). Study Results The three studies identified themes based on the participants experience which implies themes were not based on presumption authors (Cormack, 1996). Each studies result relate to its aim, which they must be praised for. The finding of each study uses the participants precise statement from the interview, which demonstrates analytical points and allows the reader to hear the voices of the participants. This demonstrates conformability and credibility (Burns, 2000) and lets the reader to get in-depth understanding of topics in discussion (Morse1196). Hamilton and Essats results highlight the view held by BME groups regarding nursing communitys lack of knowledge of cultural and religious beliefs. Cortiss findings agree with this as majority of the nurse participants did not deem that the provision of care was affected by culture and spirituality/religion was viewed narrowly by identifying the need for patients to perform prayers with no lack of recognition of other religious requirements. Participants in Cleggs study described the fundamental importance of religion and its effect on health and hospitalization. Other references re culture and religion to be added. All three studies highlighted communicational problem between patients and nurses, which as an issue hinders the development of relationship. However, problems in this area have been covered in many other studies such as (add referennces)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. And proposals and provisions to address them have been made by the DoH in order to reduce health inequalities (reference). Study Discussion All researchers offer a comprehensive discussion of their topics while comparing and contrasting their results relating to themes with other similar literature, which puts their finding in context making it more objective (Meltzoff, 1998). However, only Clegg specifies the study limitation which was the sample size- a larger sample size would have enhanced the probability of reaching saturation and increase the importance of the finding. Conclusion The three studies offer comprehensive conclusions which summarises the main results while suggesting area of further research or implementation. Cortis suggests that holism needs further conceptualization as his study highlighted nurses understanding of culture as part of holistic care was superficial, which presents a challenge for educators, nursing management, researchers and nursing practice in general. Clegg suggested further research needs to be carried out in order to define the nature of culturally sensitive services. She also points out that nurses understanding of culture and cultural sensitivity needs clarification. Hamilton and Asset suggests that nursing education must ensure that nurses initial training and post training education prepares them to become culturally understanding and sensitive. It could be argued that these three studies make useful recommendation for practice for nurses working with BME patients, which are based on education and research on cultural sensitivity. The three studies suggests that nurses are not culturally competent as required by professional bodies and the Government (English National Board for Nursing and Midwifery and Health Visiting 1997, DoH, 1997, United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting 1999, Quality Assurence Agency 2001). Cortis (2004) conducted a phenomenological study investigating the experiences of 30 registered nurses who had nursed Pakistani patients in a large acute hospital in north England within the last three months. Semi-structure interviews and supplementary questions to follow up were the main method of da

Dis/located Identities: Swinging and Contemporary Sexual Space :: Free Essays Online

Dis/located Identities: Swinging and Contemporary Sexual Space A committed relationship without monogamy sounds like a contradiction in terms to those raised in America, or most any country at this point in history. The nature of commitment suggests that it requires a single partner and the promise to remain faithful to that person. Swingers choose a slightly different route and yet it is one that can involve more trust and openness than monogamous relationships offer. Swingers [1] are couples who choose to have not only a committed relationship but to also explore, as couple, recreational sex with other individuals and couples. At the heart of a strong swinging relationship is not sex at all; rather, there is the openness, trust, and communication necessary to both talk openly about desires and fantasies and to act on them within the bounds of commitment. â€Å"To swingers, physical acts of sexual pleasure with someone you respect, just for pleasure, and making love to one’s lifetime partner are two distinctly different things† (Thomas 20). This form of sexuality is clearly outside the norm of heterosexual behavior, especially that of married or committed adults. But is it a legitimate sexual identity? Does the swinging community deserve recognition in the same terms as other minority sexual identities? Like any other form of sexual expression, swinging takes on a handful of common variants. Soft swinging is a newer form and refers â€Å"a desire for sexual activities such as watching, being watched, mutual masturbation, and possibly oral sex but without changing partners for full sexual intercourse† (Thomas 20). Closed swinging is a more commonly recognized form of swinging where couples swing in different rooms – this is where the slightly derogatory term ‘wife swapping’ probably originated. Open swinging is where two couples will swing in the same room. Couples who prefer open swinging tend to enjoy watching their partner with another person, participating somehow while their partner is having sex with another person, or the women are bisexual and wish to enjoy each other while the men watch. Group swinging is basically equivalent to an orgy, although group swinging as a term is preferred. â€Å"A lot of swingers who enjoy this type of swinging f ind that it satisfies their tastes for exhibitionism and voyeurism at the same time. Some people have fantasies of finding out how many lovers they can satisfy in one evening†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Thomas 20).

Volcanism of Long Valley, California: The Bishop Tuff Eruption Essay

Volcanism of Long Valley, California: The Bishop Tuff Eruption The west coast of North America has been tectonically and volcanically active for billions of years. The Sierra Nevada Mountains in eastern California were born of volcanoes, and magma has been erupting in the Long Valley to the east of the mountains for over three million years (Bailey, et. al., 1989). However, the climactic eruption of the region occurred relatively recently in the region's geologic history. About 760,000 years ago, a huge explosion of magma warped the Eastern Sierra into the landscape that exists today. The eruption depleted a massive magma chamber below the earth's surface so that the ceiling of the chamber imploded, forming what is now known as the Long Valley caldera. The caldera is at the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, about 50 km northwest of the town of Bishop, and 30 km south of Mono Lake (Bailey, 1976). The ejecta from the eruption moved over land and through the air: the ash that fired out of the volcano was blown as far east as Nebraska in a huge, dark cloud of plinian ash. A nuee ardente billowed over the rim of the volcano and spread lava to the south, east and north, forming a volcanic outcrop now called the Bishop Tuff. Today, an expanding resurgent dome in the center of the depression indicates current magmatic activity beneath the caldera, and earthquake swarms in the last 25 years could also be linked to subsurface magma movement. Clearly, the Long Valley caldera is not dormant, so understanding the eruption that formed the caldera and surrounding features is essential to assessing the region's current and, more importantly, possible future activity. Volcanic activity existed prior to the Bishop Tuf... ...A. and David P. Hill. Magmatic Unrest at Long Valley Caldera, California, 1980-1990. The Long Valley Caldera, Mammoth Lakes, and Owens Valley Region; Mono County, California. Joan Baldwin, et. al, editors. South Coast Geological Society. Annual Field Trip Guide Book. No 27. Sept 1999. Francis, Peter. Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective. Clarendon Press, New York. 1992. pg. 292-4. Hildreth, Wes and Gail A. Mahood. Ring-fracture eruption of the Bishop Tuff." Geological Society of America Bulletin. v. 97. p. 396-403. April 1986. Lipshie, Stephen R. Geologic Guidebook to the Long Valley-Mono Craters Region of Eastern California. Second Edition. South Coast Geological Society. Santa Ana. 2001. Sheridan, Michael F. Fuarmolic Mounds and Ridges of the Bishop Tuff, California.Geological Society of America Bulletin. v. 81. March 1970. pg 851-868